A. J. Minnis, _Chaucer and Pagan Antiquity_

A. J. Minnis presents an interesting argument for paganism in the book _Chaucer and Pagan Antiquity_. Minnis begins by analyzing Chaucer’s approach to paganism and why he might include them. Chaucer was writing from a medieval period concerned with Christianity and the salvation of the soul through a single God. The use of pagan figures and allusions in his writing would seemingly contradict the time period, but readers must realize that we must observe from Chaucer’s context. Just as we are looking back at Chaucer, he was looking back at pagan antiquity. He was only keeping literary tradition as it was at that particular point in time.
The book continues by pointing out the shortcomings of antiquity and how the pagan theology and philosophy falls short. The basic argument for this is that paganism originated out of a worship of the material world. Deities were later created to control the material world, such as the sun, water, and other elements of nature. Still, Christian scholars scoffed at paganism for its main flaw in the value of the material world.
Minnis then examines how Chaucer preserves the value and antiquity of paganism by exploring the noble features of Chaucer’s characters that are pagan. The main example is the transformation of Theseus, Arcite, and Palamoun. Minnis suggests that these characters are given a more fair treatment from that of the source texts. There nobleness and ability for rational thought is raised in Chaucer’s versions, making them the noble pagans that are worthy of admiration for their personal beliefs and convictions.
This book makes easy to follow arguments, but it depends too much on the knowledge of outside sources. It refers to other authors and critics without giving much information on the background of their ideas. Many of the ideas coming from Minnis are wonderful and easily understood, but the book fails when trying to another author’s understanding of how Chaucer’s use of pagan antiquity should be viewed. Avoid if not interested in pagan religious aspects of Troilus and Creseyde or The

--Andrés Boyer

The Hero of The Troilus by Alfred David

David, Alfred. "The Hero of Troilus." Speculum v. 37. n. 4. October 1962. pp. 566-81.

A not too wearying read that seeks to make the Troilus of Troilus and Criseyde interesting to modern readers. The fifteen pages of David's article consists of an argument which examines the narrative of the poem in a linear fashion in order to make relevant as much as possible so that Troilus may become more three-dimensional. A great majority of the article is given to refuting critics over matters such as how strictly Troilus acts in accordance with the courtly love tradition. David argues against the critics who say that Troilus is purely flat in that respect, pointing out that the poem begins with a Troilus who mocks at love and who, ever after, is constantly diminished, physically and psychologically, by the effects of love. David also makes an interesting point about how Criseyde and Troilus are really mismatched due to their divergent views on love: Troilus' being idealist, while Criseyde's are practical; and although Troilus' views mature over time, he still gives himself up to a fatalist notion that he will rise or fall by love. David concludes the article by seeking a compromise between the two arguments of ghosts of critics past over Troilus' equivocal laugh at the end: "Troilus' celestial laughter recognizes at the same time the absurdity and the sublimity of human experience."

Paul T. Thurston, "Artistic Ambivalence in Chaucer's Knight's Tale"

Thurston, Paul T. "Artistic Ambivalence in Chaucer's Knight's Tale." Gainesville: University of Florida Press. 1968.

Thurston in this book takes issue with what he believes is the common interpretation of The Knight's Tale as a great example of medieval romance. He believes this interpretation makes the tale one of courtly love and chivalry on a grand scale. Thurston wants to present a second interpretation for readers to consider, that of the tale being a work of satire. Thurston believes that the tale satires what he calls the "hallowed" traditions of chivalry and its foundations. He believes that this interpretation is for the more literal minded readers of Chaucer.

Thurston supports his point of view by examining passages from the tale and examining them for evidence of satire and humor. In particular, he looks at the errors in logic that occur throughout the text. For example, he looks at the speech of Palamon when Theseus finds Arcite and him fighting each other. Palamon calls his escape from Theseus' prison wicked, which is a quality opposite of that which would be appropriate. Palamon has fought against Theseus and he has called him his mortal enemy so therefore it is an error to describe his escape as wicked. Thurston believes this idealistic error on the part of Palamon hows him to be a fool, and therefore is both humorous and satirical. Throughout the book Thurston examines the tale for evidence of humor and satire such as this.

-Book available in the Knox College Library

Margaret Schlauch, "Chaucer's Doctrine of Kings and Tyrants"

Schlauch, Margaret. "Chaucer's Doctrine of Kings and Tyrants." Speculum. Vol. 20, No. 2 (Apr. 1945). pp. 133-156

Despite her title, Schlauch does not actually attribute a fully developed "doctrine" of political thought to Chaucer. Rather, she examines political theorists of the twelfth through fourteenth centuries and demonstrates that Western European thought was beginning to focus more on the importance of the people than on the lords. This led to an alteration in political theory that made the goal of monarchy (and lordship, in general) the common good of the people. Thus, rule was more considered a burden than a position of grandeur.

As for Chaucer, Schlauch posits that the English writer was a subscriber to the theory, in a general sense. He likely witnessed upheavals in Italy brought on by tyranny and his works, particularly the Legend of Good Women, are full of denunciations of those who do not rule by the blessings of the people. Moreover, Chaucer uses tyranny as a metaphor in such subjects as love and pride (such as Troilus and Criseyde). But perhaps most telling is Chaucer's constant revisitation of "commune profit," as seen in The Clerk's Tale and The Parliament of Fowles. To Chaucer, then, the sovereign must do all he can to benefit the community, even if that requires sacrifices of his own.

Schlauch's piece is written in such a manner that it is only fully intelligible if one has a working knowledge of both Latin and Italian. Chaucer's contributions to political thought only occur in the last quarter of the work and they are sketchy at best.

- Available through JSTOR.

John P. McCall, "The Trojan Scene in Chaucer's Troilus"

McCall, John P. "The Trojan Scene in Chaucer's Troilus." ELH. Vol. 29, No. 3 (Sep. 1962). pp.263-275.

McCall defends Kittredge's basic premise that the Trojan background in Troilus and Criseyde creates an overall atmosphere of doom. However, McCall goes further, claiming that the experiences of Troy and those of Troilus are mirrored throughout the tale. After all, Troilus's name means "Little Troy." Both Troy and Troilus are gambling with Fortune, McCall claims. They have foolishly made everything dependent on their success defending a woman attained through underhanded means.

As Troilus and Criseyde advances from a period of good Fortune for Troilus (when the war is hardly spoken of) to one of bad Fortune (when the Greeks take an active part in the story), the city mirrors Troilus's condition. In Books 4 and 5, the sense of impending doom is unmistakable.

McCall's argument logically finds an incorporation for the ever nagging Trojan war and supplies an interpretation suggesting that Chaucer knew exactly what he was doing.

- Available through JSTOR

What Chaucer really did to Il Filostrato

Lewis, C.S. "What Chaucer Really Did to Il Filostrato." Troilus and Criseyde. Ed. Stephen A. Barney. New York: W.W. Norton, 2006.

Lewis here argues that Chaucer’s many amendments, additive and subtractive, to Boccacio’s Il Filostrato are much more than an attempt to put his own stamp on the story. Instead, Chaucer’s process of revision, with its various reductions and expansions, is a process of “medievalization” – the English, Lewis claims, never really had a renaissance, and the Boccacio thus had to be retrofitted to accommodate the societal norms and expectations of Chaucer’s audience. Put simply, Chaucer would have read Il Filostrato and been impressed; he also would have felt that some major changes were necessary if the story was to be appreciated by his English contemporaries. Part of this medievalization, Lewis states, is the conversion of Boccacio’s original to a state much more closely in line with the true tenets of courtly love.

Lewis further argues that modern audiences too readily apply their own sensibilities to Troilus and Criseyde, as they do to most of Chaucer’s work. They label the Troilus as satire, and Pandare as a full-out comic character, for example, when Chaucer’s own audiences would have taken the story more seriously than the modern reader is likely to do. Original readers, he claims, would have been less likely to find humor in the lessons and exemplum themselves, but would instead have found humor in the contrast between those edifying lessons and the stubborn responses of Troilus.

Finally, Lewis claims that the Troilus is more resonant and appealing than Il Filostrato and that, as a result, it can be deduced that the ideal of courtly love is more resonant and appealing to readers – then and now – than are the more jaded beliefs and ideals that appear in the earlier work.

There is more to this article than can easily be summarized. It can be found in the back of the assigned Troilus and Criseyde text.

Robert P. Miller, "The Wife of Bath's Tale and Mediaeval Exempla"

Miller, Robert P. "The Wife of Bath's Tale and Mediaeval Exempla". ELH, Vol. 32, No. 4. (Dec., 1965), pp. 442-456.
Discussion of the Wife of Bath's tale as an example of instructional literature, especially in regard to courtly love-the Tale serves as a dramatization of works like Capellanus, providing clearer understanding of what behaviors are to be engaged in, along with dramatic presentations of the reasons why. Contrasts with Gower's "Florent". Information on sources, connected to the Wife's mentions of her authorities. The Tale as an illustration of the rule of Obedience.

--Carina Saxon (available through JSTOR)

Ananda Coomaraswamy, "On the Loathly Bride"

Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. "On the Loathly Bride". Speculum, Vol. 20, No. 4. (Oct.,
1945), pp. 391-404.
Examination of the Loathly Lady tradition, with reference to both Celtic goddesses/mythology and eastern (primarily Hindu) tale-types. Summary of the primary examples of the archetype in mediaeval literature. The Loathly Lady as the embodiment of the kingdom and the divine right of kings.

--Carina Saxon (available through JSTOR)

Arthur W. Hoffman "Chaucer's Prologue to Pilgrimage: The Two Voices"

Arthur W. Hoffman "Chaucer's Prologue to Pilgrimage: The Two Voices"

Hoffman W., Arthur "Chaucer's Prologue to Pilgrimage: The Two Voices" The Canterbury Tales; Fifteen Tales and the General Prologue, 2005, pp. 492-503.

In this criticism, Arthur talks about the commonplace of each of the portraits of the pilgrams. When he talks about commonplace, he is saying that all the portraits have an underlying connection to each other that makes all the tales connected in some way. He compares two portraits to each other and views them as opposites on a spectrum. He first compares March and April in making the transition from Winter to Spring and how that sends the energy for everyone to make the pilgrimage and how that is the determining factor for the journey to be made. He compares the Knight and Squire's portraits in their draws to the pilgramage, the Prioress and Monk and Friar's portraits in their draws to the pilgramage, and ends with Summoner and Pardoner's portraits for the same comparison. The point Arthur is making is what the two different voices are that call each pilgram to make the journey to Cantebury. One voice is the wordly voice of materialistic values such as the Summoner. The other is supposed to be the supernature voice that calls for spiritual relief such as being called by the saints by the Knight. The entire criticism focuses on what voice calls each pilgram and comparing two portraits for their respectice callings.

available in the back of The Canterbury Tales; Fifteen Tales and the General Prologue

Patrick Cogar

Milo Kearney and Mimosa Schraer "The Flaw in Troilus"

Milo Kearney and Mimosa Schraer "The Flaw in Troilus"

Kearney, Milo and Schraer, Mimosa "The Flaw in Toilus" (handout in class) The Chaucer Review. Vol. 22. No. 3. 1988, pp. 185-190.

In this handout, Milo and Mimosa argue that Troilus is just responsible for what happens at the end of Troilus and Criseyde as Criseyde was. They point to the fact that Troilus says nothing when Criseyde is being offered up as an exchange to the Greeks in Book IV. They argue that Troilus could have helped Hector presuade the Trojans to not send Criseyde over to the Greeks if he had just spoken out. They also go and make comparisons to how Troilus is portrayed in Boccaccio's version of Troilus and Criseyde. They mostly compare on how well of a speaker Troilus is in each version and the differences in what he does in the scene where Criseyde is being handed over to the Greeks by the Trojans. They ultimately say that Troilus is just as responisble for what happens in the end as Criseyde is.

available from the handout in class

Patrick Cogar

Terry Jones, Chaucer's Knight: Portrait of a Medieval Mercenary

Jones, Terry. Chaucer's Knight: A Portrait of a Medieval Mercenary. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980.

Jones posits that Chaucer's Knight is not the honorable and noble character everyone thinks he is, but is actually more of a medieval mercenary. The book is divided into three major sections. In the first, she closely examines the battles in which the Knight took part, and argues that these were not noble battles as one might expect, but massacres. The Knight, she continues, was not the crusader of a noble cause, but simply a tyrannical mercenary. In the second section, Jones examines the Knight's tale itself to show that it is not the renown tale of courtly love it is believed to be. She argues that the Knight does not actually have much respect for courtly love at all. She shows the parallels between Theseus' and the Knight' military successes and points out how both seem to see love in a more militant light. In the final section, she examines the Knight's interruption of the Monk's tale. She points out how the host first called on the monk to tell a tale immediately after the Knight's and he is prevented from telling his tale because of the drunken Miller. Though the Miller's tale seems to "qyte" the Knight's, Jones suggests that it is the Monk's tale which really does the "qyting". The Knight interrupts because the Monk's tale is beginning to hit too close to home.

Book available from Seymour Library.

“Criseyde’s Infidelity and the Moral of the Troilus.”

apRoberts, Robert P. “Criseyde’s Infidelity and the Moral of the Troilus.” Speculum, Vol. 44, No. 3 (1969,) pp. 383-402.

apRoberts aims, by analyzing the reasons for Criseyde’s infidelity, to discover what the true moral of Troilus & Criseyde is. He reference C.S. Lewis’ argument that Criseyde’s fatal flaw of fear is what causes her infidelity. However, after referencing and explaining Lewis’ argument, apRoberts debunks it, claiming that Criseyde is not overly fearful. He argues that, rather than one fatal flaw in a perfect heroine causing Criseyde’s infidelity, it is in fact her humanity that leads her to be unfaithful to Troilus. He says that Criseyde’s betrayal is not so much a result of a flaw that she has, as a heroic quality that she lacks. Rather than having a super-human level of courage and strength, like Antigone or Juliet, Criseyde has a normal level of strength that can not hold up to the fear of death and loneliness. And so he argues that, in the face of death if she returns to Troy, and loneliness if she remains with the Greeks, Criseyde decides she will accept the comfort and protection that Diomedes’ offers. In this case, he says, the moral of the story is not that one should not love a woman (or a man) who possesses qualities that will make her (or him) unfaithful, but rather that, because it is Criseyde’s very humanity that causes her to be unfaithful to Troilus, no one should expect true fidelity and immutability in human relationships.

Available on JSTOR

Hannah Rapp

Grady, Frank. "The Boethian Reader of Troilus and Criseyde."

Chaucer Review 33, no. 3 (1999): 230-251.

Grady analyzes the Boethian philosophical undercurrent in Troilus and Criseyde as it relates to narrative structure, readership and Christian/Pagan paradox. The "double sorwe" of Troilus is made clear from the beginning through blatant foreshadowing and hints that a culturally literate medieval audience would understand. There is little doubt that a story set in Troy during the Trojan War will resolve itself unpleasantly. Grady argues that the audience approached the story with premonition-like foreknowledge through historical hindsight and cultural background. Even the characters themselves are prone to divination, notably through Calkas or Cassandra. Grady claims that this emphasis on Troilus' predestined fate is very like the predicament of the hero of the Consolation of Philosophy, although Troilus is not given the aid of Lady Philosophy. According to Grady, the loose timelines of Book V and the repetition of predestined doom throughout weave "a Boethian spell" that culminates strangely in Troilus' posthumous redemption. Grady elucidates the "special treatment" Troilus seems to receive (as a pagan, after all) as he flies into the eighth heavenly sphere. He questions what a medieval Boethian audience would think about his "exceptional salvation." How, also, are the readers to behave considering Troilus' suffering? Is the implied audience that of courtly lovers or, more broadly, Christians? This article brings up more questions than it attempts to answer. As the title suggests, it is (unfortunately) less concerned with Boethius than readers of Boethius. Grady does not conclusively (or clearly) illustrate the connection between the Troilus and the Consolation of Philosophy. When he compares the two works, it is to suggests that portions the Troilus lacks of the Consolation ask "readers to play the part of Lady Philosophy...[and] to play God" by filling in the blanks themselves. Although he makes clear that foreknowledge is an important part of the reading experience and the poem itself, this conclusion isn't convincing.

Taylor, Davis. "The Terms of Love: A Study of Troilus's Style"

Speculum, 51(1) 69-90. 1976.

The author conducts an intensive study of Troilus's language in Troilus and Criseyde, and uses this analysis to explain Troilus's character in terms of the overall moral of the poem. He first demonstrates that Chaucer gives Troilus the voice of a lover from medieval love poetry, which is not found in the voice of the character from the source. Three stylistic traits are recurrent in Troilus's language that characterize him as this type of lover: the "use of superlatives", the frequent use of "qualitative terms", and the "recurrence of long internal monologues". The author argues that by placing such an idealistic lover in a rather realistic setting, his character is occasionally ironic, but redeemable in the end. Troilus's use of language suggest that he thinks about and carefully chooses his words, arguing often in a more roundabout style than, say, Pandarus, who uses common idiomatic phrases. The author suggests that the care Chaucer takes in giving Troilus speeches which reflect the morality in situations simply through the use of language patterns reflects the fact that Chaucer means to present Troilus as a noble and worthy character. He also argues that Troilus uses language as a tool to separate himself from others: his unique language patterns reflect his feeling that he is unique in his sorrow, as well. The article is very well supported with textual evidence, though this is probably the only literature paper that I've read that includes calculations (for the percentage of time a character uses a particular type of phrase or a finite verb, etc.)

Available on JSTOR

Miller, Robert P. "The Wife of Bath's Tale and Mediaeval Exampla"

ELH, 32(4) 442-456. 1965.

This article gives an overview of many traditional medieval stories which would have been well known to Chaucer's audience at the time. The author does not argue that the wife of bath's tale used these tales as a source, rather, he presents these tales suggesting that Chaucer's readers' familiarity with these tales could have had some influence on their interpretation of the Wife of Bath and her tale. The principle of obedience, for example, shows up in many tales. Most of these tales involve a beautiful seductress who tests the knight, who is often bound to chastity for some reason. The knight has to resist the temptations of the woman in order to prove himself worthy, and it is often then revealed that the seductress was, in fact, an ugly old woman. The author then compares these tale with the Wife of Bath's tale, in which the story is somewhat different, but in significant ways. The article is very informative, and would be useful in any sort of source study concerning the wife of bath's tale.

Available on JSTOR

Barney, Stephen A. “Troilus Bound”

Barney, Stephen A. “Troilus Bound”. Speculum. 47.3 (1972): 445-458.

Barney is looking at the theme of imprisonment in the Troilus. In order to do this he examines source material as well as the Canterbury Tales to find common themes of imprisonment. There are two types of bondage: the bondage of Fortune and the bondage of love. The bondage of Fortune, the author notes, is mentioned in “The Knight’s tale” in connection with Theseus’s chain of love speech (which is also Boethian). The bondage of love is then broken up into three kinds: sexual attraction, marriage, and the “harmonious linkages of the universe”. Barney mentions that both the Miller and the Merchant call marriage a trap, which seems to contrast Chaucer’s typically light hearted attitude towards sexual desire. This article was a little hard to get through because the thesis statement was a little hard to find. But as an explanation of the relational dynamics of Chaucer, it works well enough.

On JSTOR. Rachel M

Hatcher, Elizabeth R. “Chaucer and the Psychology of Fear: Troilus in Book V”

Hatcher, Elizabeth R. “Chaucer and the Psychology of Fear: Troilus in Book V”. EHL.40.3 (1973): 307-324.

Hatcher begins by examining anxiety in a historical context using examples from Thomas Aquinus, particularly his metaphor of anxiety as a town under siege. The two types of anxiety mentioned are anxiety of anticipation and the anxiety of loss. Hatcher examines the Troilus beside Il Filostrato, paying particular attention to the main character. Troilus is more anxious because he is actually in love with Criseyde as opposed to Troilo who simply is in lust. Chaucer also examines the effects of immoderate fear, a step that Aquinus does not take. Using the textual differences Hatcher shows how Troilus’s anxiety colors how characters such as Panderus interact with him, and thus change the shape of the book. While the anxiety theories aren’t as current because of when this article was written, it does fit well with Chaucer which can be a pain to use modern psychology to analyze.

On JSTOR. Rachel M

Schibanoff, Susan. “Prudence and Artificial Memory in Chaucer's Troilus.”

Schibanoff, Susan. “Prudence and Artificial Memory in Chaucer's Troilus.” ELH: A Journal of English Literary History 42.4(1975): 507-517.

Schibanoff examines Chaucer’s attention to physical setting Troilus and Criseyde and also his placement of setting before action in Troilus’ recollection of his time together with Criseyde after she has been handed over to the Greeks. She relates this to a technique used by medieval orators for delivering long speeches solely from memory. This technique involved visualizing a series of places, inventing a series of images representing various parts of the speech, and then associating each image with a different place. The speech could then be recalled by essentially moving through one’s imagination to each of the various places. This, Schibanoff argues, is essentially what Troilus is doing in his recollection, and by having Troilus revisit earlier settings, Chaucer forces the audience to do the same. The audience, however, Schibanoff states, has been conditioned to associate a different set of images with these settings. Not only that, but the audience is also given a different perspective from which to view these settings. By the constant reminders that fortune’s wheel must take a downward turn, the audience is given knowledge of the eventual fates of Troilus and Criseyde. She goes on to argue that in Troilus’ recollection, there is a sense that he is coming to the realization that he will never see Criseyde again and this narrows the gap between the audience and Troilus, making him seem more sympathetic throughout Book V. By the end of Book V, however, Troilus has outdistanced even the audience and achieved a sort of divine knowledge that frees him from the human desire to resist unpleasant outcomes. Schibanoff, however, is unclear on which of these views Chaucer seems to sympathize with, but she closes by stating that it could possibly be both.

Available on Jstor.

Farrell, Thomas J. “Privacy and the Boundaries of Fabliau in The Miller's Tale.”

Farrell, Thomas J. “Privacy and the Boundaries of Fabliau in The Miller's Tale.” ELH: A Journal of English Literary History 56.4(1989): 773-795.

Farrell begins by examining the key features of the genre of the fabliau. He focuses on the atmosphere of privacy constructed by both the setting and the characters in fabliau, the trickery and self-servitude generally displayed by the characters, and the common lack of a dispensation of justice at the end. Farrell then goes on to examine whether “The Miller’s Tale fits the description of a fabliau. He argues that while much of the tale offers convincing evidence for classifying it as a fabliau, it moves toward being something more by the end of the tale as the character’s actions are no longer completely private and there is an apparent dispensation of justice. In an effort to make sense of these elements, Farrell places “The Miller’s Tale” alongside “The Knight’s Tale.” “The Knight’s Tale,” he says, is concerned with finding justice and order in the universe but because of the manner in which it ends, it is more indicative of a chaotic universe in which justice cannot be assured. On the other hand, because of its movement away from the fabliau genre at its end, “The Miller’s Tale” finds the justice that is lacking in “The Knight’s Tale.”

Available on Jstor.

Dieter Mehl, "Chaucer's Narrator: Troilus and Criseyde and the Canterbury Tales"

Mehl, Dieter. "Chaucer's narrator: Troilus and Criseyde and the Canterbury Tales." The Cambridge Chaucer Companion. Cambridge University Press, pp 213-225.

In his essay “Chaucer's narrator: Troilus and Criseyde and the Canterbury Tales”, Dieter Mehl examines Chaucer’s use of narrators throughout his various works, from the Book of the Duchess to the Canterbury Tales. Examining the kinds of unreliable narrators – that is, narrators who should not necessarily be identified with their author – that Chaucer employs and to what ends, he posits that “the point is not so much whether Chaucer really was that kind of man” but rather that such a narrator is a construct of the fiction and works to fulfill its aims. He introduces the idea of the narrator as a craftsman or guide, who both manipulates and attempts to instruct his audience in the workings of his manipulation in order to aid our understanding of the text. Mehl suggests that Chaucer’s narrators encourage dialogue, an active interaction between author, audience and text, by preventing any clear moral judgment from being drawn and by appealing to that of the reader instead. This experimentation with unreliable narration finds its ultimate form in the Canterbury Tales, where the myriad narrators, their sincerity and our judgments of them become as much the subject of the work as any other theme explored.

--Liz Soehngen (article distributed in class)

Rosemarie McGerr - Chaucer’s Open Books: Resistance to Closure in Medieval Discourse

McGerr, Rosemarie. Chaucer’s Open Books: Resistance to Closure in Medieval Discourse. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998.
(Available in the Knox Library)

Also used a book review to further understand the text:
Scala, Elizabeth. “Book Review: Chaucer’s Open Books: Resistance to Closure in Medieval Discourse.” Notes and Queries. 46, no. 3 (1999): 379-82.
(Available on LION)

McGerr’s book plays around with ideas about the Medieval uses of closure and whether or not Chaucer rejects those concepts in his major works. I focused on the sections on the Canterbury Tales and Chaucer’s Retraction primarily. McGerr tries to avoid the major contributions by other Chaucerian scholars and hopes to remove any theorizing from her own discussion. The book focuses more on a historical background about the time period rather than being a strict and conventional literary theory. In this view, religious justification or “Augustinian moralism” is placed as the central basis for Chaucer’s motives and his rejection of the commonplace conclusions of other works of the time period. At times, it seems that McGerr is supporting Chaucer’s unique style of poetry and form, with his own set of meanings and interpretations of storytelling, but also falling prey to traditionalist reading of Chaucer that rejects him on subject matter and intent. McGerr’s discussion of The Canterbury Tales and its ending focuses on the juxtaposition of “the Parson’s Tale” and “Chaucer’s Retraction.” The view of the retraction is that it was written for the reader’s curiosity and search for closure and/or meaning in the ending of a work. McGerr states that Chaucer is actually showing that the reader solely provides any meaning. The discussion of the use of language also goes into the reader’s interpretation, as opposed to any of Chaucer’s intentions for the work. She feels that Chaucer may have put the whole of the responsibility on how all the poetry and prose rests on his original language and then how it is interpreted and defined. For some of the discussions on the works we had not read as well as other topics (especially on the topic of dream sequences) were hard for me to follow. I found the book review by Scala to try to understand some of the unclear portions of the text. Scala explains that there are many articles and books about Medieval culture and Chaucer that McGerr rejects or omits which might have made her arguments clearer. Some of these include: Sturges’s Medieval Interpretations, which gives a greater depiction of the background of the works in the secular and religious divide. Also she mentions John Burrows “Poems without Endings” is mentioned which focuses on the unfinished and fragmented works of the time, like The Canterbury Tales, and when the genre became popular in the post-Romantic era. Apparently, according to Scala who knows the sources available, feels that many of the contradictions to the book are not mentioned in the text. Chaucer’s Open Books is an interesting read, but it proves that without a basis in literary or rhetorical theory, an author overly challenges his or herself by making it that much harder to write, read, and interpret.